The Seven Wonders of the World

Guangdong

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Guangdong is a province of southern China, on the South China Sea, west of the Taiwan Strait. The province has an area of 197,100 Ü (76,101 æ), excluding the island of Hainan, which became a separate province in 1988. The population is 68,680,000 (1996 est.). Guangzhou (Canton) is the chief city and capital; other major cities include Shantou (Shan-t'ou) and Shaoguan (Shao-kuan). The special administrative regions of Hong Kong and Macao are enclaves surrounded by Guangdong.

The province is generally hilly and mountainous, although the Pearl River delta, the Luiqiao (Luichow) Peninsula, and several delta plains and inland basins are lowland areas. The climate is subtropical; yearly rainfall averages 1,600 mm (63 in). Two crops of rice can be harvested each year. Sweet potatoes are the leading crop for drier soils; sugarcane is also extensively grown, as well as about 300 species of fruit. Mineral resources, including tungsten, iron, and manganese, are considerable. Industries include steel, textiles, shipbuilding, canning, and sugar refining. Beginning in 1979, foreign investment led to spectacular economic development in Guangdong, particularly in the Special Economic Zones of Shenzhen (Shen-chen), near Hong Kong; Zhuhai (Chu-hai), near Macao; and Shantou (Shan-t'o), near Taiwan.

The population, about 98% ethnic Chinese, is divided into several language groups, constituting the largest group of non-Mandarin (official standard Chinese) speakers in the country. The Cantonese dialect is spoken by almost two-thirds of the population. (See Chinese language.)

Guangdong had earlier contacts with the West than did most other parts of China, and crowded conditions in the farming villages near Guangzhou led to the emigration of many Cantonese, especially to Southeast Asia and the United States. In recent times the province's prosperity has attracted migrants from poorer parts of China.

Hong Kong (hawng kawng)

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The former British crown colony of Hong Kong (in Chinese, Xianggang) is a special administrative region of China situated on the southern coast of Guangdong (Kwangtung) province. Hong Kong Island was ceded by China in 1842 after its defeat in the first Opium War (see Opium Wars). In 1860, after the second Opium War, the peninsula of Kowloon on the mainland was added to the colony, and in 1898 a large area beyond Kowloon together with the surrounding islands, known as the New Territories, was leased to Great Britain for 99 years. This lease expired on July 1, 1997, when the whole of the colony was restored to Chinese sovereignty.

LAND

Most of Hong Kong, which has a total land area of 1,092 km6 (422 mi6), consists of low-lying hills. Only 8% of the land is suitable for crop production. The highest point is Tai Mo Shan, north of Kowloon, which rises to 957 m (3,140 ft). A plain in the northwestern part of the New Territories extends to the Shenzhen (Shen-chen) River, which forms the boundary between Hong Kong and the Chinese mainland. There are few natural springs or rivers, and 70% of the freshwater supply is piped in from the mainland; the rest comes from rainwater collected in huge reservoirs. Large areas have been reclaimed from the sea on the north shore of Hong Kong Island and around Kowloon to provide flat land for urban development. One of the world's largest-ever construction projects a new airport, town, and port on reclaimed land at Chek Lap Kok that includes bridges, tunnels, highways, and a rail line was partially completed at the time Hong Kong was returned to China. The Tsing-Ma suspension bridge, the world's longest road and rail link, opened in 1997; it led to the new airport, which was officially dedicated in July 1998.

Hong Kong lies just below the tropic of Cancer. The summer months (June to September) are hot and humid, with a mean temperature of 28¡ C (82¡ F). Typhoons sometimes occur during this season. The winter months are cooler, with a mean January temperature of 16¡ C (60¡ F). Rainfall totals 2,225 mm (87 in) annually, most of which falls in the summer.

PEOPLE

Hong Kong has one of the highest population densities in the world more than 6,400 persons per km6 (nearly 16,600 per mi6). About 98% of the population of 6,900,000 (2001 est.) are Chinese, most of whom have their family origins in Guangdong province. A 1999 ruling by Hong Kong's highest court (later overturned by the Chinese legislature) that legalized the immigration of tens of thousands of children of Hong Kong residents from the Chinese mainland raised concerns about a new influx of people into already overcrowded Hong Kong. There are also significant numbers of Europeans and Americans, Filipinos (mostly domestic servants), and Indians and Pakistanis. About 60,000 Hong Kong residents emigrate each year, mostly to North America or Australia, seeking better economic opportunities or fearful of their future under Chinese Communist rule. This outflow is more than counterbalanced by legal and illegal immigration from China.

The leading religious affiliations among the Chinese are Buddhism, Daoism (Taoism), and traditional sects, followed by Christianity and Islam. English and Chinese are the languages of government. The Cantonese dialect is the usual medium of communication, although Mandarin has been promoted since the reversion to Chinese sovereignty.

In 1996 more than 92% of Hong Kong's adult population were literate. The first nine years of education are free, universal, and compulsory, and almost all students complete two further years of secondary education. In 1995 there were six universities and several other postsecondary institutions.

ECONOMY

Hong Kong was originally acquired by Britain because of its magnificent natural harbor (Victoria Harbour). From the late 19th century, along with Shanghai, it was one of the main entrep™ts for Western commerce with China. After 1949, when the traditional entrep™t trade with China declined, Shanghaiese businessmen fleeing from the Communists, local entrepreneurs, and the old British trading houses set up many new industries, making use of the cheap labor of the mass of refugees. Hong Kong's success in exporting manufactures to Europe and North America attracted substantial investment by American and Japanese firms. Leading exports now include clothing and textiles, yarn and fabric, footwear, electrical appliances, watches and clocks, and toys. Imports include foodstuffs, chemicals, textiles, machinery, and transportation equipment. One-third of China's imports and exports pass through the port.

In recent years many production processes have been relocated to adjacent areas of Guangdong and Shenzhen to take advantage of cheaper labor there. Hong Kong firms employ more than twice as many people on the mainland as they do in Hong Kong. Hong Kong has become the largest banking center in the Pacific region after Tokyo. China's investment in Hong Kong's real estate, service industries, and financial sector since the late 1980s has been substantial. Trade, finance, insurance, tourism, shipping, and other services accounted for more than 85% of Hong Kong's gross domestic product (GDP) in 1997. That year, manufacturing employed more than 13% of the labor force but generated only about 6% of the GDP. The important tourist sector, which declined along with many Asian economies in 1997 and 1998, began to recover by 1999, when 10.7 million tourists visited Hong Kong. That year, it was announced that the third Disney theme park outside of the United States was to be constructed in Hong Kong. In 2000 the Hong Kong government signed an agreement for the construction of Cyberport, an information technology center that would include research facilities and housing, in an effort to attract more multinational companies specializing in computing and information technology. Agriculture and fishing account for about 0.1% of the GDP, and most food must be imported.

After Hong Kong returned to Chinese rule, it retained its separate currency linked to the U.S. dollar, its own passports, and its individual membership in such international organizations as the World Trade Organization. Hong Kong residents also did not have to pay Chinese taxes. Whether Hong Kong's free-wheeling economy and society would continue to flourish unimpeded by Chinese interference was considered one of the key tests facing China's leaders following the death of Deng Xiaoping in February 1997. Unlike its neighbors, Hong Kong did not devalue its currency when its stock market fell steeply in October due to a regional currency crisis. By 1998 it was experiencing an economic contraction for the first time in 13 years due to the economic downturn that had engulfed much of Asia. By mid-year unemployment had reached a 15-year high and property values had declined dramatically. In the third quarter of 1998 the economy actually contracted by 7% under the impact of declining retail sales, exports, tourism, and domestic consumption its worst performance in decades. The recession continued into 1999, and property values declined by about 50% between 1997 and 2000. In 2000, Hong Kong had the fastest-growing economy in Asia, expanding at more than 10% during that year. The number of workers unemployed or underemployed remained very high, however, and the economy grew by only about 1% in 2001.

Hong Kong's current woes stem from a variety of factors the economic difficulties affecting many of its major trading partners; a steep decline in property values that has devastated middle-class property owners; the declining importance of Hong Kong as an intermediary for trade with and investment in southern China; and a growing lack of faith in the government's ability to deal with the situation. Although China continued to administer Hong Kong under the promised "one nation, two systems" model, its economy and that of the mainland were clearly intricately linked, and critics charged that its government was far too willing to surrender its autonomy to Beijing.

HISTORY AND GOVERNMENT

Britain seized Hong Kong to secure a base for the opium traders expelled from Guangzhou (Canton). It was then a barren rock occupied by a few communities of fishermen. Commercial development soon attracted thousands of migrants from the mainland. This influx continued, particularly when China was convulsed by war or internal disorder.

In 1940 the Japanese invaded Hong Kong. They occupied it until the end of World War II, when British colonial rule was restored. Communist armies reached the frontier in 1949 after their victory in the Chinese civil war but made no attempt to invade, although the Chinese government repeatedly declared that the treaties governing Hong Kong had been imposed by force and were not binding. There were serious riots in 1967, inspired by the Cultural Revolution in China, but apart from this the Chinese government left the colony undisturbed, probably because up to 40% of China's foreign exchange earnings were derived from trade and commercial transactions with it. In 1982 negotiations began on Hong Kong's future, and in 1984, China and Britain signed a joint declaration under which China would resume sovereignty over the whole colony in 1997 and promised to grant Hong Kong a high degree of autonomy, allowing capitalism and the inhabitants' lifestyle to continue undisturbed for 50 years. In 1990, China promulgated a Basic Law (constitution) for the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region after 1997. It provided that one-third of the members of the legislature would be directly elected and that the chief executive (to be appointed by Beijing) would have greater powers than the British governor.

Unlike other British colonies, Hong Kong's system of government did not develop into a parliamentary democracy. Until 1985 the Legislative Council consisted of civil servants and members appointed by the governor. From 1985 some members were indirectly elected, and in 1994 under the last British governor, Chris Patten the electorate was expanded. Prodemocracy candidates won a potential majority in 1995, when all council members were directly or indirectly elected. The British extension of democracy created tensions with China, which in March 1996 rejected the elected legislature. In December a Chinese-appointed selection committee chose shipping magnate Tung Chee-hwa to become Hong Kong's new chief executive and a provisional legislature to take over on July 1, 1997, when Hong Kong officially reverted to China. The transition ceremony took place smoothly at midnight on June 30, amid some anxieties concerning the continuation of political and economic freedoms. Tung announced that limitations on the rights of public protest and free association would be imposed under Chinese control. Elections were held in May 1998 to replace the appointed provisional legislature with a permanent legislature chosen by proportional voting and limited constituencies under a system designed to limit popular government. Prodemocracy candidates won more than 60% of the popular vote, but they held less than one-third of the seats in the new legislative council. On July 1, China's President Jiang Zemin visited Hong Kong and took part in ceremonies marking the first anniversary of its return to Chinese sovereignty. That same month, Bill Clinton became the first incumbent U.S. president ever to visit Hong Kong. Controversy developed in 1999 when a decision by the Hong Kong high court expanding rights of residency was overturned by the Chinese legislature; the Hong Kong court finally ruled in December that the Chinese legislature had final authority in interpreting Hong Kong's constitution in such cases. Critics charged that these actions compromised Hong Kong's legal autonomy. A legal challenge to the reinterpretation of the immigration law, launched in May 2000 by more than 5,000 Chinese immigrants living illegally in Hong Kong, was defeated in the high court in January 2002. Thus, once again, Hong Kong's courts supported the Chinese government's efforts to restrict immigration from the mainland.

In the 2000 legislative elections, prodemocracy candidates retained the same number of seats they had previously held, but their share of the popular vote declined. Anson Chan, the first woman and the first Chinese person to head the civil service in Hong Kong, stepped down from that post in January 2001; her resignation severed the last major government link to the colonial era and fueled concerns about whether Hong Kong would be able to retain the unique qualities that contributed to its prosperity if faced with pressure from the Chinese government. In July 2001 the Hong Kong legislature approved a controversial bill that will apparently allow China to dismiss Hong Kong's chief executive. In February 2002, Hong Kong's election committee selected Tung for a second term without opposition, despite his domestic unpopularity.

The fortress of Sacsahuaman

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The fortress of Sacsahuaman was built by the Inca in the 15th century on a hill northwest of their capital at Cuzco, in Peru. The fortress takes the form of a series of zigzag retaining walls built of huge stones, some weighing several tons. Such fortresses, called pucaras, were frequently built above population centers in the Andes to serve as refuges for the populace in case of attack. Spanish sources suggest that Sacsahuaman was also an important storage center, and it may have had religious significance as well. Construction is usually attributed to the ruler Pachacuti, but it is unlikely that the huge fortress was completed in a single reign.

San Simeon California

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San Simeon, a village on the Pacific coast in southern California, is the site of La Cuesta Encantada (the "Enchanted Hill"), the retreat of William Randolph Hearst. Hearst inherited the nucleus of the large estate from his father, Senator George Hearst, and in 1919 commissioned architect Julia Morgan to design an elaborate complex of buildings there. The centerpiece, completed in 1939, was the twin-towered Spanish castle La Casa Grande, which Hearst filled with medieval treasures. Other features of the estate include three Italianate guest houses; the Neptune pool, abutted by a colonnade and a classical Roman temple; and formal Mediterranean gardens filled with statuary. After Hearst's death in 1951 the estate was given to the state of California as a memorial to his mother; it became known as the Hearst-San Simeon State Historical Monument.

The samurai

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The samurai were Japan's warrior class for seven centuries. Their name was derived from the Japanese word for service, saburau. The samurai were military retainers who emerged as military aristocrats and then as military rulers. Samurai involvement in government began in 1156, and from 1160 to 1185 the warrior Taira no Kiyomori dominated affairs at court. In the Gempei War (1180Ð85) the Taira family was displaced by the Minamoto clan. Yoritomo established the first of the military governments, or shogunates (see shogun), that dominated political life from 1185 until 1868. The Satsuma rebellion (1877) marked the last serious samurai threat to imperial power.

Medieval samurai were generally illiterate, rural landowners who farmed between battles. Some developed the necessary skills for bureaucratic service, but most did not. During the shogunate of the Tokugawa family (1600Ð1868) the samurai as a class were transformed into military bureaucrats and were required to master administrative skills as well as military arts. As hereditary warriors they were governed by a code of ethicsÑbushido, meaning "the way of the warrior"Ñthat defined service and conduct appropriate to their status as elite members of Japanese society.

The Koran (Qur'an)

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The Koran, or Qur'an (Arabic for "the reading"), is the Sacred Scripture of Islam. Muslims acknowledge it as the actual words of God revealed to the Prophet Muhammad between c.610 and his death . The text contains 114 chapters (suras), arrangedÑexcept for the opening suraÑapproximately according to length, beginning with the longer chapters.

The Koran, termed glorious and wonderful, describes itself as a healing and mercy, as light and guidance from God , as the absolute Truth , and as a perspicuous Book sent down from heaven in Arabic, part by part, upon Muhammad. Presented as a blessed reminder and an admonition to people everywhere, it calls for grateful recognition of the many signs, around us and in us , of the goodness of him from whom all good comes and urges a total commitment to him who alone is God . Announcing Judgment Day as the final fulfillment of God's threat and his promise , it warns evildoers and those who are ungrateful but brings good tidings to those who accept the guidance to the straightest path and who live in accord with its message and its commandments (regarding marriage and divorce, children and inheritance, lawful foods, spoils of war, and so on). The text asserts that its message is neither a human invention (as its inimitability proves) nor an innovation, since it confirms and clarifies the Scripture that Jews and Christians had received earlier.

It is generally believed that the standard text of the Koran, adopted during the reign of the caliph Uthman, is based on the compilation of one of Muhammad's secretaries, Zayd Ibn Thabit. By calligraphic copying of its verses, and in many other ways as well, Muslims express their devotion to this Scripture over which, they trust, God himself watches

The Abbasids Tomb

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The Abbasids were the dynasty of caliphs who ruled the Islamic empire from 750 until the Mongol conquest of the Middle East in 1258. The dynasty takes its name from its ancestor al-Abbas, the uncle of the Prophet Muhammad. In 750 the Abbasids defeated the Umayyads and transferred the capital of the caliphate from Damascus to Baghdad, thereby shifting the empire's center from Syria to Iraq.

The regime reasserted the theocratic concept of the caliphate and continuity with orthodox Islam as the basis of unity and authority in the empire. The Abbasid "revolution" also made Islam and the fruits of power accessible to non-Arabs. A strong Persian influence persisted in the government and culture of the Abbasid period, and Hellenistic ideas led to the rapid growth of intellectual life.

The Abbasid period may be divided into two parts. In the period from 750 to 945 the authority of the caliphs gradually declined, while the Turkish military leaders gained increasing influence. The dynasty's power peaked in the reign (786-809) of Harun al-Rashid. In the later period, from 945 to 1258, the caliphs generally held no more than nominal suzerainty; real power, even in Baghdad, passed to dynasties of secular sovereigns.

Porto (Oporto)

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Porto (Oporto) is a major port city in northern Portugal. Located on steep slopes overlooking the Douro River, 5 km (3 mi) from the Atlantic Ocean, Porto has a population of 309,485 (1991) and is Portugal's second-largest city. The city has been famous since the 17th century for its production and export of port wine. Fruit, cork, olives, lace, silver filigree jewelry, and textiles are also among the city's products exported from its suburban port, Leix›es. Fishing and tourism are also economically important.

Porto's landmarks include the 12th-century Romanesque cathedral, the Manueline-style Church of Santa Clara, and the neoclassical Stock Exchange. The historic center is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Porto has several museums including the Soares dos Reis, an ethnographic museum, and the Museu de Sarralves (designed by çlvaro Siza and opened in 1999) and is the home of the University of Porto (1911).

In addition to its port facilities nearby, the city is served by an international airport. It is well known for the three large bridges spanning the Douro, including one designed by Alexandre Gustave Eiffel.

Located in an area settled as early as 2000 ©, Porto became the Roman town of Portus Cale in the 3d century ©. It passed to the Moors in 716, and they held it until the end of the 10th century. By the 12th century it was a busy merchant center and was regarded as the northern capital of Portugal. The British took the city from the French during the Peninsular War

The Straits of Mackinac

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The Straits of Mackinac separate Upper and Lower Michigan and connect Lake Michigan on the west to Lake Huron on the east. The Mackinac Bridge, one of the major suspension bridges in the world, crosses the straits, connecting Mackinaw City and Saint Ignace in northern Michigan. Completed in 1957, the bridge was designed to withstand the extreme wind conditions and heavy ice and snow loads encountered in northern Michigan.

The channel, 6 km (4 mi) wide and 48 km (30 mi) long, separates the Upper and Lower peninsulas of Michigan. The two large islands in the strait are Bois Blanc and Mackinac. The straits were discovered by Jean Nicolet in 1634. The Mackinac Bridge, one of the longest suspension bridges in the world, crosses the straits.

About Peru

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Facts about Peru
Official title: Republic of Peru

LAND
Area: 1,285,216 km6 (496,224 mi6).
Capital and largest city: Lima (1996 est. pop., 316,332).
Elevations: highest Huascaran, 6,768 m (22,205 ft); lowest sea level, along the coast.

PEOPLE
Population (2001 est.): 26,100,000; density: 20.3 persons per km6 (52.6 per mi6).
Distribution (2001 est.): 72% urban, 28% rural.
Annual growth (2001 est.): 1.8%.
Official languages: Spanish, Quechua.
Major religion: Roman Catholicism.

EDUCATION AND HEALTH
Literacy (1995 est.): 89% of adult population.
Universities (1994): 35.
Hospital beds (1994): 42,979.
Physicians (1996): 24,708.
Life expectancy (2001 est.): women 71; men 66.
Infant mortality (2001 est.): 41 per 1,000 live births.

ECONOMY
GDP (2000 est.): $123 billion; $4,475 per capita.
Labor distribution (1992): agriculture 33%; public administration and services 27%; trade and finance 18%; manufacturing and mining 13%; construction 4%; public utilities, transport, and communications 5%.
Foreign trade (1999 est.): imports $8.4 billion; exports $5.9 billion; principal trade partners United States, China, Japan, Colombia.
Currency: 1 nuevo sol = 100 centimos.

GOVERNMENT
Type: republic.
Government leaders (2002): Alejandro Toledo president; Roberto Danino prime minister.
Legislature: Democratic Constituent Congress.
Political subdivisions: 24 departments, province of Callao.

COMMUNICATIONS
Railroads (1997): 2,041 km (1,268 mi) total.
Roads (1999 est.): 72,900 km (45,298 mi) total.
Major ports: 7.
Major airfields: 2.

Cuzco (Cusco)

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Cuzco (also Cusco), the capital of Cuzco department in southern Peru, was the capital of the Inca empire from its beginnings in the 14th century until the Spanish conquest in 1533. A tourist attraction, the city is known for its Inca ruins and Spanish colonial architecture. Situated at an altitude of 3,416 m (11,207 ft) in a broad valley of the Andes, it is the busy hub of a thickly populated agricultural region where sheep are raised and cereals and tobacco are grown. The population of 255,568 (1993) is predominantly Indian, and the city, with its open markets, adobe houses, and narrow, winding cobblestone streets, is Indian in character. Quechua, the Inca language, is still widely spoken. The climate is cool, with temperatures averaging about 10.9¡ C (51.6¡ F). Annual precipitation is 750 mm (29.5 in). The area is subject to earthquakes, the most damaging having occurred in 1650 and 1950.

Inca tribes are believed to have come to Cuzco from the Lake Titicaca region in about the 11th century. The legendary founder of the city was Manco Capac, first of the Inca rulers. The name Cuzco is Quechua for "navel," and the city was considered the center of the Inca world, the place where the four parts of the empire came together. It was the hub from which the famous Inca road network radiated.

Inca Cuzco was different in concept and plan from European cities. It was designed in the form of a puma, with the 15th-century fortress of Sacsahuaman as the head. The confluence of the Huatanay and Tullumayo rivers was canalized and straightened to form the tail. The core of the city contained official and ceremonial buildings and residences of ruling officials. Many other buildings and residences were dispersed at a considerable distance in the countryside surrounding the core, but they were defined as part of the capital.

The Inca capital is especially known for its architecture of enormous cut-stone blocks fitted so perfectly that no mortar was needed. Coricancha, the temple of the sun, and the fortress of Sacsahuaman are the most outstanding examples of this type of construction. Cuzco is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

From all parts of the Inca empire a wealth of silver and gold poured into Cuzco, filling the temples and palaces. These treasures were plundered by Francisco Pizarro in 1533, and the city was destroyed. The Spaniards built a new city on the ruins of the old, adorning the magnificent edifices of their churches with the looted wealth. Under Spanish rule Cuzco flourished as an art center, home of the renowned Cuzque–o school of painting.

The Pharos of Alexandria

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The Pharos of Alexandria, the most famous lighthouse of ancient times and the prototype for all subsequent lighthouses, was planned by Ptolemy I of Egypt and completed (C.280 BC) after his death. One of the Seven Wonders of the World, the tiered tower, with a spiral ramp leading to its top, was erected on the island of Pharos, in the harbor of Alexandria. The tower's light, which was produced by a fire of oil or resinous wood, was intensified with the aid of many reflecting mirrors.

The Pharos of Alexandria became the prototype for ancient lighthouses. Situated on Pharos island at the end of the harbor of the new city, the structure was planned by Ptolemy I of Egypt (d. 284 BC) and completed by his successor in about 280 BC. Its base proclaimed that the architect Sostratus of Cnidus dedicated it to the "savior gods" on behalf of navigators. Models show a rectangular, tiered tower 122 m (400 ft) high, in which fires of resinous wood or oil were kept burning. They were reflected by metal mirrors supposedly designed by Archimedes, thus making them visible for possibly 50 km (about 30 mi), an excellent distance for antiquity. The 15th-century fort of Qait Bay now stands in the ruins of the Pharos.

The Colossus of Rhodes

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The Colossus of Rhodes (292-280 BC), which stood approximately 118 ft (36 m) high overlooking the city's harbor, was erected to celebrate the end of Demetrius Poliorcetes' siege (305 BC) against Rhodes. Designed by Chares of Lindos and reinforced with stone and iron, the bronze statue portrayed Helios, the sun god and patron divinity of Rhodes. The Colossus of Rhodes was one of the Seven Wonders of the World

After defeating Demetrius Poliorcetes in 305 BC, the citizens of Rhodes used their booty to erect a thank offering to their divine patron Helios. Chares of Lindos, a pupil of Lysippus, built (292-280 BC) a bronze statue of the nude young god wearing a sun-ray crown and looking out to sea. Many stories exaggerate the size of the statue; it must, however, have been approximately 36 m (120 ft) high on a base of white marble 6-7.5 m (20-25 ft) high and thus larger than any other statue. It stood beside, not over, the harbor. Although reinforced with stone and iron, the Colossus broke at the knees and fell in an earthquake 60 years later. It remained a wonder until the Arab invasion (AD 653), when it was broken up and sold for scrap metal. Nothing of it remains except very dubious copies.

The Mausoleum at Halicarnassus

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The Mausoleum at Halicarnassus,Ionia, was erected (C.352 BC) to commemorate the death of the satrap (overlord) Mausolus. One of the Seven Wonders of the World, the grandiose white marble tomb, ornamented with a frieze and other sculptural works, was surmounted by a 24-step pyramid, upon which stood a chariot. The Mausoleum at Halicarnassus is the origin of the word mausoleum

The Mausoleum at Halicarnassus, in Ionia, has given its name to all subsequent tomb monuments. Mausolus, satrap of Caria, was honored with this tomb by his queen, Artemisia (d. 350 BC). The architects Satyros and Pythios designed a templelike marble tomb with an Ionic colonnade on a high base surrounded by lions; the roof was a 24-step pyramid on the peak of which stood a chariot. The famous sculptors Timotheus, Bryaxis, Leochares, and Scopas created the friezeัdepicting Amazons battling heroesัwhich is now in the British Museum. The site on which the mausoleum stood was excavated in 1857; the medieval castle at Bodrum, Turkey, contains many fragments from it.

The Statue of Zeus at Olympia

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The colossal gold and ivory statue of Zeus seated on an elaborately worked throne was one of the Seven Wonders of the World. It was sculpted (C.436-432 BC) by Phidias and placed in the Temple of Zeus at Olympia, Greece. Standing almost 40 ft (12 m) high, the statue survived until the 5th century AD.

The colossal Zeus in the temple at Olympia was the most celebrated ancient statue because of its size, beauty, and costliness. It was chryselephantineัmade of gold and ivory. The famous Athenian sculptor Phidias (who also designed the statue of Athena in the Parthenon) made the seated figure (c.436-432 BC) in a special workshop behind the temple. The figure sat on an elaborate throne covered with ebony, glass, and gemstone inlays as well as sculptures and paintings of Greek myths and legends. It held a scepter with an eagle in its left hand and a Nike (victory goddess) in its right. The flesh was ivory and the drapery gold. In front of the figure, whose head nearly touched the ceiling (it was approximately 12 m/40 ft high), was a blue-black stone basin filled with oil to protect it from the damp air of Olympia. Tourist galleries surrounded it. The lost statue is known from coins and archaeological evidence.

The Temple of Artemis at Ephesus

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One of the Seven Wonders of the World, the monumental Temple of Artemis (Artemesion) at Ephesus, an Ionian city in Anatolia, was erected (C.560 BC) by the architects Chersiphron and Metagenes. The original colonnaded temple was burned (356 BC) and the Goths destroyed (AD 263) a rebuilt temple.

The Artemision, or Temple of Artemis (Diana), at Ephesus in Ionia was famous since c.560 BC, when a monumental temple was erected by Chersiphron and his son Metagenes of Crete. Its base measured 115 X 55 m (377 X 180 ft), and the roofless, colonnaded interior housed a primitive statue of Artemis. The columns of the porch carried reliefs of mythical characters and inscriptions recording donations by King Croesus (r. 560-546 BC) of Lydia. The original Artemision, reportedly the finest example of early Ionic architecture, burned in the rebellion of 356 BC; it was rebuilt on a higher base and decorated by Scopas and Apelles. The temple was finally destroyed by the Goths in AD 263. Roman copies of the bizarre, mummylike statue survive.

The Hanging Gardens of Babylon

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Greek legends tell two stories of the Hanging Gardens of Babylon. One holds that they were built by the Assyrian Queen Semiramis (Sammuramat, 810-805 BC). The other, that Nebuchadnezzar II (r. 605-562 BC) built the gardens to remind his wife, a Mede, of her mountainous homeland, is perhaps more likely. The excavator, Robert Koldewey, identified the arched substructure of what may have been a terraced garden. Set in a corner of the palace fortifications and towering over the famous Ishtar Gate (decorated with blue-enameled reliefs of bulls and dragons)was a 7-m-high (23-ft) wall on which trees had presumably been planted, creating what would have been a majestic view visible to anyone entering on the Processional Way.

The Taj Mahal (1630 A.D.) Agra, India

2008-03-12T01:20:00.000+07:00

This immense mausoleum was built on the orders of Shah Jahan, the fifth Muslim Mogul emperor, to honor the memory of his beloved late wife. Built out of white marble and standing in formally laid-out walled gardens, the Taj Mahal is regarded as the most perfect jewel of Muslim art in India. The emperor was consequently jailed and, it is said, could then only see the Taj Mahal out of his small cell window.

The Roman Colosseum (70 - 82 A.D.) Rome, Italy

2008-03-12T01:19:00.000+07:00

This great amphitheater in the centre of Rome was built to give favors to successful legionnaires and to celebrate the glory of the Roman Empire. Its design concept still stands to this very day, and virtually every modern sports stadium some 2,000 years later still bears the irresistible imprint of the Colosseum's original design. Today, through films and history books, we are even more aware of the cruel fights and games that took place in this arena, all for the joy of the spectators.

Petra (9 B.C. - 40 A.D.), Jordan

2008-03-12T01:18:00.000+07:00

On the edge of the Arabian Desert, Petra was the glittering capital of the Nabataean empire of King Aretas IV (9 B.C. to 40 A.D.). Masters of water technology, the Nabataeans provided their city with great tunnel constructions and water chambers. A theater, modelled on Greek-Roman prototypes, had space for an audience of 4,000. Today, the Palace Tombs of Petra, with the 42-meter-high Hellenistic temple facade on the El-Deir Monastery, are impressive examples of Middle Eastern culture.

Machu Picchu (1460-1470), Peru

2008-03-12T01:17:00.000+07:00

In the 15th century, the Incan Emperor Pachacútec built a city in the clouds on the mountain known as Machu Picchu ("old mountain"). This extraordinary settlement lies halfway up the Andes Plateau, deep in the Amazon jungle and above the Urubamba River. It was probably abandoned by the Incas because of a smallpox outbreak and, after the Spanish defeated the Incan Empire, the city remained 'lost' for over three centuries. It was rediscovered by Hiram Bingham in 1911.

The Great Wall of China (220 B.C and 1368 - 1644 A.D.) China

2008-03-11T23:35:00.000+07:00

The Great Wall of China was built to link existing fortifications into a united defense system and better keep invading Mongol tribes out of China. It is the largest man-made monument ever to have been built and it is disputed that it is the only one visible from space. Many thousands of people must have given their lives to build this colossal construction.

Christ Redeemer (1931) Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

2008-03-11T23:34:00.000+07:00

This statue of Jesus stands some 38 meters tall, atop the Corcovado mountain overlooking Rio de Janeiro. Designed by Brazilian Heitor da Silva Costa and created by French sculptor Paul Landowski, it is one of the world’s best-known monuments. The statue took five years to construct and was inaugurated on October 12, 1931. It has become a symbol of the city and of the warmth of the Brazilian people, who receive visitors with open arms.

The Pyramids of Egypt

2008-03-11T23:25:00.000+07:00

The most important and famous pyramids of Egypt are the three great pyramids at Giza, on the west bank of the Nile River. They were built between 2660 and 2560 BC for the kings Cheops, Chephren (Khafre), and Mycerinus. The pyramids were meant to house the pharaohs' bodies and serve as reminders of their almighty power. The pyramids are the oldest of the Seven Wonders of the World and the only ones to survive to modern times

The pyramids of Egypt, in the desert of Giza and Saqqara outside Cairo, were old before the other six wonders were built. The tradition of such monumental tombs for the pharaohs began with the step pyramid of Zoser (3d dynasty). Supposedly designed by the engineer Imhotep, this pyramid gave the impression of a stone hill 60 m (197 ft) high. The interior is almost solid, with gangways and burial chambers (some of which are empty, serving as decoys for thieves). Successive pharaohs copied and enlarged the form, adding limestone facings. The largest is the Great Pyramid of Khufu (Cheops), about 147 m (481 ft) high on a base 230 m (755 ft) square. Khafre (Chephren), Menkaure (Mykerinos), and others built successively less impressive pyramids.

The Pyramid at Chichén Itzá (before 800 A.D.) Yucatan Peninsula, Mexico

2007-07-09T22:18:00.001+07:00

Chichén Itzá, the most famous Mayan temple city, served as the political and economic center of the Mayan civilization. Its various structures - the pyramid of Kukulkan, the Temple of Chac Mool, the Hall of the Thousand Pillars, and the Playing Field of the Prisoners – can still be seen today and are demonstrative of an extraordinary commitment to architectural space and composition. The pyramid itself was the last, and arguably the greatest, of all Mayan temples.

Apollo Belvedere

2007-06-05T03:20:00.001+07:00

The Greek god Apollo was the personification of eternal youth and beauty--stalwart, athletic, and beardless. This, the Apollo Belvedere (Vatican Museum), the most famous statue of the god, is a Roman copy of the original by Leochares, an Athenian sculptor of the 4th century BC

In Greek mythology, Apollo and his twin sister, Artemis, were the children of Zeus and Leto and were born on the island of Delos. Hence, Apollo was often called the Delian god, and Delos long remained a center of his worship. He was also identified closely with Delphi, in central Greece, where he killed the serpent Python and founded the most renowned center for prophecy in the ancient world, the shrine of the Delphic Oracle. Areas of special concern to Apollo were prophecy, medicine, the fine arts, archery, beauty, flocks and herds, law, courage, and wisdom. Associated with him were the tripod, omphalos (a beehive-shaped stone at Delphi, designating that spot as the center or navel of the Earth), lyre, bow and arrows, laurel wreath, palm tree, wolf, hawk, crow, and fawn. Although Apollo was not Greek in origin, he became, next to Zeus, the god most revered by the Greeks and the god who best embodied the Greek spirit. Later he became confused with the sun-god Helios and was considered the god of light. Of Apollo's many loves, one of the best known was Daphne, who fled his embraces and was turned into his tree, the laurel. From that time on, Apollo wore a laurel wreath. Laurel wreaths became the prize awarded in athletic and musical competitions. Asclepius, a son of Apollo, became the god of medicine; another son, Linus, was a renowned music teacher. In Roman mythology, Apollo represented the literary and fine arts, culture, and the law. Augustus (r. 31 ©-¥ 14) built a magnificent temple to him and included in it two public libraries, one for Greek works and another for Latin works. Apollo was a favorite subject for artists of every medium. The walls of his temple at Delphi bore two Greek maxims, "Know Thyself" and "Nothing in Excess."